Symbolic Significance of Bagpipes in Dutch Paintings:
Hendrick Ter Brugghen’s Remarkable Bagpipe Player in Profile as an Example
December 16, 2010
Many scholars interpreted Ter Brugghen’s paintings of musicians as a moral commentary on both the craft of music making and people’s immersion in short-lived pleasures and lusts. Providing evidence for that argument was not hard for those scholars, considering the ever-growing trend in Brugghen’s time of depicting musicians associated with seductive women and/or excessive drinking. In addition, the “ buffoonery or good natured mockery”, which Linda Bauer refers to as a characteristic of Caravaggio’s and his followers’ paintings including Ter Brugghen’s , does imply a somewhat moral message in their view[1]. Moreover, those scholars based a big part of their evidence on the emerging trend of depicting the seven or cardinal sins and the consequences of one living only for his earthly delights as an implicitly didactic way to show people what not to do, instead of telling them what to do. Jheronimus Bosch’s paintings depicting carnal sins where he always has a skeleton bagpiper representing both evil and death is the best embodiment of that trend in Flemish art in the late fifteenth century[2]. Another source of scholar’s argument that the music profession was quite problematic and controversial is the history of music in the Renaissance. The literature of musical history confirms that strict Calvinist churches prohibited the use of musical instruments[3] , and the fact that Bach didn’t write any “church canatatas for Calvinist Cothen” is the best evidence for that[4]. Briefly, those scholars tried to say that Dutch paintings of musicians in Ter Brugghen’s time were not as secular as they appeared. They thought those paintings could not surpass the religious didactic realm, but they actually were stuck in the attitude of using art to serve religion instead of making art for art’s sake.
The perspective from which those scholars look at Ter Brugghen’s paintings of musicians is very tempting to embrace because their evidence is well supported. Nevertheless, I will undertake a broader perspective to look at those paintings considering Linda Bauer’s suggestion that Ter Brugghen’s paintings “can be related to a text”[5]. I will argue that Ter Brugghen was not only providing a moral commentary through those paintings. Instead, he was depicting a bagpipe whose image was meant to allude to its soothing sound and to function as a social healer. This function of the bagpipe as a social healer is found in literature, in pastoral poetry in particular, throughout history.
Not only that painting in the seventeenth-century was a medium through which artists expressed text and/or poetry, but also many poems were illustrated with drawings and paintings. Therefore, I will explore Brugghen’s paintings of musicians in light of this association of musical instruments with text and poetry. Considering the fact that some scholars suggest that paintings of musical instruments represented their tones and/or their melodies, I will inspect the great connection between sight and sound, and the relationship between musical instruments and their representations in visual arts. This will help me figure out to what degree sight was used to represent sound and if that was one of Brugghen’s objectives. I argue that as our senses cannot be separated in perceiving our experiences and as we cannot exclude one when we perceive through another, we cannot attribute Ter Brugghen’s paintings of musicians to one categorical objective: the didactic objective so-to-speak. Yet, I argue that Ter Brugghen’s Bagpiper in Profile evokes a poetic perception of humanity’s means of expression, the bagpipe in this case, and the bagpipe’s ability to soothe the human pain.
Considering Hendrick Ter Brugghen’s Bagpipe Player in Profile (figure. 1), currently in the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC, it is an embodiment of the trend of depicting bagpipes and bagpipers in seventeenth century Dutch art[6] . Ter Brugghen’s depiction of the bagpiper is an example of an artistic trend that is rooted in literature, and is altered with the alteration of literary forms and attitudes through ages. My ultimate goal is to understand the symbolic significance of bagpipes and/or bagpipers through the eyes of the seventeenth century Dutch audience. In order to understand Ter Brugghen’s Bagpiper in its social context and its historical background, tracing back the motif of bagpipes and bagpipers in paintings, poetry and manuscripts is the path I will undergo. I will look at the literature of the Dutch Renaissance life and culture, with great emphasis on its music making (including lyrics and poems), musical instruments, musical trends and musicians as well. This will extend to include the history of bagpipes, how they started, how they were used, who played them, where they were played, and the social classification of bagpipers through time.
Shedding light on both the artistic and historical aspect of the painting can be the milestone of looking at it from the point of view of the seventeenth century Dutch viewer. For accessing an artistic piece from an insider’s perspective within its historical framework is greatly helpful in connecting it to other forms of art and other cultural manifestations. Looking at Ter Brugghen’s Bagpiper in its historical context will broaden our perspective and will make it easier to examine its poetic origin and its artistic associations in order to articulate its symbolic significance. The motif of bagpipes and bagpipers in paintings reflected on the same motif in literature, in general, and in pastoral poetry specifically. Understanding Ter Brugghen’s Bagpiper in that sense, we will see the great bond of the image of the bagpipe and its sound, which had a social soothing function in the Dutch art which was borrowed from pastoral poetry in the first place.
Depicting bagpipes and bagpipers in the seventeenth century visual arts was part of a broader trend in Dutch art: depicting musicians along with their musical instruments. Depicting musicians in paintings was a widespread trend in Dutch art in the seventeenth century. This trend was due to the great improvement of instrumental music and instrument production in addition to the great increase of printed works on musical theory[7]. Moreover, the separation of instrumental music and church music in the seventeenth century contributed to its liberation and professionalism which made it more realistic than visionary[8]. Consequently, artists were more interested in portraying “facts” instead of “visions”[9].
In the fifteenth century, the greatly praised Flemish composers moved to Italy, which caused Italy to dominate the musical world and become the “musical power” of Western Europe[10]. This musical excellence and superiority inspired Italian painters to depict musicians with their musical instruments. Since Hendrick Ter Brugghen took a trip to Italy in 1616 and stayed there for a few years, he picked up this trend from Italian painters, especially Caravaggio, whose artistic style had a great impact on Ter Brugghen’s works. According to Slatkes and Franits, Ter Brugghen shared a workshop with Dirk van Baburen in Utrecht (1621-1627) who did “introduce, modernize and establish the trend of representing musicians, flute, lute, and bagpipe players”[11]. Moreover, Ter Brugghen’s early teacher, Abraham Bloemaret, who was in a way or another “the father of the seventeenth-century Utrecht School of painting”, depicted musicians and even a bagpiper in his paintings[12].
This depiction of musicians was logical due to the fact that Dutch artists in the seventeenth century didn’t only work for religious and/ or noble families[13]. Instead, they worked for “city magistrates, boards of governors, shooting clubs, and, above all for the wealthy merchants”[14]. Thus, Dutch artists realized that meeting the needs of the newly-wealthy was the way to popularize their works. As a result, they represented scenes from the everyday “bourgeois or military life”, people who owned artistic works for the decoration of their “parlour”[15]. All of these factors played a significant role in Ter Brugghen’s embracing this artistic approach.
Even though scholars tried to find the root of this trend in the history of visual art and the history of music, they do not seem to pay sufficient attention to the root of it in literature, despite the fact that there was a great connection between visual arts and poetry[16]. We can see this connection in illustrations of manuscripts in the middle ages[17]. In fact, poetry played the role of the inspirer to most creative works at the time to the degree that all forms of art was seen in light of poetry , e.g. “the making or posis of a statue is , not mere manual labor but itself poetry”[18]. This applies to all forms of art since the Greek equivalence of the word art, “facere”, is originally taken from the verb from which the word “poetry” derived[19]. Not only that art had been called “the poetry of art "[20] , but also literary text or poetry, was the primary focus of musicians according to which they adjusted their music by ; “following the sense of the words and thus moving the soul of the listener”[21]. In other words, music was the vehicle through which musicians attempted to serve words. The newly-born relationship between text and music is fully described by Zarlino, the illustrious theorist of Venice and a devoted disciple of Willaert. In 1558, he mentions Plato’s definition of music in his Istituzioni harmoniche (book IV, ch.32), which emphasizes the essentiality of text in music creation[22]. According to Plato, the text is the “principal element” while harmony and rhythm are “subservient “to it[23]. Briefly, Zarlino stresses the notion of expressing meanings and emotions of words through tones. This suggests that musical expression used to symbolize textual representation and /or refer to a textual interpretation. In fact, all cultural and artistic trends reflect on its literature from which they take their origin as will be discussed.
Even though scholars assert that Bagpipes appeared since Antiquity, they cannot determine in what year in particular. Nevertheless, Grove confirms in his Dictionary of Music and Musicians the assumption that the instrument appeared in the first century A.D[24]. Suetonius and Dio Chrysostom affirmed that it was when Nero himself used to play the instrument, which appears on a coin of him[25]. Having been used by emperors and nobility, the instrument did surpass that realm to the world of emperors’ men. Four centuries later and according to Procopius, it was used by “the imperial Roman army”[26]. Finding a bronze bagpiper beneath the old Roman castle at Richborough, Kent, in the eighteenth century contributes to the suggestion of the instrument being introduced into England by Roman soldiers[27]. The exclusive military role of the instrument did not last very long since it started to function as a social instrument as well. In fact, bagpipes had a significant position in both the religious and political worlds in the Middle Ages. They were used in church ceremonies and services and in royal courts as well[28]. In addition, in England in Western Europe, it was used as a folkloric instrument in weddings, dances, rustic festivals and funerals[29]. The wardrobe accounts of Edward II of England for the year 1307 document payment to ‘Janino Chevretter’ (John the Bagpiper)[30]. This shows the involvement of bagpipers in the social life and their connection to the royalty. In addition, in 1334, Edward III issued licenses to grant two bagpipers to visit minstrelsy schools abroad[31]. This confirms the significance of the bagpiper’s profession in the eyes of kings as well as the close association of music and poetry.
Exploring the literary contexts in which bagpipes were mentioned will help in understanding the symbolic significance of it in literature and its connection to the way it was expressed in visual art. In literature, bagpipes had a symbolic significance that Walter Clyde Curry refers to when talking about the bagpiper Miller in Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales[32]. Curry thinks that Chaucer used the bagpipe motif in order to serve an artistic function; to symbolize two vices in particular; “gluttony and lustfulness”[33].
We find various depictions of bagpipers in manuscripts in different contexts. In some of those depictions appear in a religious context that illustrate psalms and religious books. For instance, in an illustration of psalm 97, there is a piper among other musicians at the court of King David[34]. We find another ‘crowned’ bagpiper in an illustration of ‘The Life of David’[35]. In other manuscripts, bagpipes appear as a ‘dance instrument’ within courtly scenes in addition to those in which soloist pipers appear[36].
Bagpipers in manuscripts appear in different ways, e.g. as dancing animals that follow other bagpipers and as angel bagpipers celebrating the Coronation of the Virgin whether in church architecture or in manuscripts[37] . the three contexts in which we find human bagpipers in manuscripts in the Middle Ages are ; “ the piper alone; playing for a woman or , occasionally , a man dancing; and a woman dancing or balancing on the shoulders of the piper” [38]. According to David Stephens, this diversity in depictions doesn’t generate any conclusions about the symbolic significance of bagpipers or bagpipes in that time[39]. Yet, it only confirms the popularity of bagpipes “throughout all levels of medieval society”[40].
The more the motif was depicted in literature, the more popular it became and the faster it was represented in paintings. Furthermore, we find at least one bagpiper in most of the representations of the ‘Adoration of the Shepherds’[41]. In his article “Wittenwiler’s Beeki and the Medieval Bagpipe”, G. Fenwick Jones suggests that bagpipes in medieval art were used as a “sexual symbol” that represented “the qualities of gluttony and lechery”[42]. In this context, Jones refers to paintings by Pieter Brueghel the elder that depict peasants with bagpipes, which he thinks is a symbol of their “gluttony, folly, avarice, lasciviousness”[43]. Block mentions the reason behind using bagpipes to symbolize those sins or vices. He attributes that to the physical shape of the instrument itself, its “obvious resemblance to the human stomach”[44]. On the other hand, Adriaane J. Barnouw attributes the symbolization of lechery in bagpipes to its resemblance to the “male organs of reproduction”[45]
Even though some scholars argue that bagpipes were associated with herdsmen and folk festivals, there are many historical examples that show otherwise. According to The Examination of Sir William of Thorpe in an English Garner by Edward Arber, bagpipers played a significant role in the religious world since they accompanied pilgrims in their pilgrimages. This was confirmed by the Lollard William Thorpe who described some of the pilgrimage practices in 1407;
Some other pilgrims will have with them bagpipes: so that every town that they come through, what with the noise of their singing, and with the sound of their piping and with the jangling of their Canterbury bells… they make more noise than if the King came there away, with all his clarions and many other minstrels. [46]
In addition to honoring pilgrims and celebrating their status in the cities through which they passed, bagpipers had another role to play in pilgrimages. This role was referred to in Archbishop Arundel’s reply to William Thorpe after he agreed that it was all right for pilgrims to bring singers and pipers:
When one of them that goeth barefoot striketh his toe upon a stone and hurteth him sore and maketh him to bleed; it is well done, that he or his fellow, begin then a song or else take out of his bosom a bagpipe for to drive away with such mirthm the hurt of his fellow. For with such solace, the travail and weariness of pilgrims is lightly and merrily brought forth.[47]
This soothing function of bagpipes emphasizes the significance and the nobility of the social role of music, singers and pipers in helping people forget their pain. The healing function of word and/or poetry is referred to in a famous episode of the Gerusalemme liberata. Erminia who gets lost in the woods while trying to escape the Christian patrol, calms down and her sorrows fade away when she finds herself in the land of shepherds: “All while he spoke, Erminia hung upon / the old man’s gentle words, intent and quiet. / His wise speech sank into her heart; her senses’ / turbulent waves were soothed a little by it”.[48]
Tasso’s text serves as an evidence for the “ healing agenda” of pastoral poetry [49]Federico Schneider focuses on pastoral poetry as a therapy for “love-melancholy” by displaying Guarani’s Pastor Fido (1589) and Monteverdi Fifth Book of Madrigals (1605) as examples of the “therapeutic urgencies of the pastoral” in the Renaissance[50]. Interestingly, the healing function of music is explicitly mentioned in pastoral poetry “since its methodical origins”, e.g. Pan, scorned by the beautiful nymph Syrinx, resorts to the oaten flute (the “zampogna”) to forget about his brokenhearted feelings[51]. Pastoral drama was used to integrate literary and musical expression
and Guarnini’s “literary interlocutor’s play” and Monteverdi’s as well, are perfect embodiment of this trend[52]. This “marriage” of music and poetry in pastoral drama signified the status of music in theatre and all forms of art accordingly[53]. In addition, it contributed to the appearance of a new function of both music and poetry; “the ultimate musico-poetic therapy” for the brokenhearted[54]
Since some scholars suggested that depiction of musical instruments was meant to represent the sense of hearing, I will explore some paintings that represent the senses in an allegorical manner in order to be able to decide if Brugghen’s depiction of his Bagpiper belongs to this category[55]. Representing the senses through paintings was very common during the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries[56], and was accompanied with a new approach in allegory, “less abstract and more exemplary”[57]. According to Hans Kauffmann, this approach was typical among Utrecht painters and we can see it in Jan van Bylert’s The Five Senses, as well as in Ter Brugghen’s Allegory of Excess (Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum)[58] . They both depict a woman squeezing a bunch of grapes in her hand to illustrate the sense of taste exemplarily according to those scholars. For they try to interpret those paintings in light of the conflict between reason and temptation of pleasure, from a moral perspective, only to prove a didactic objective.
Considering the “Aristotelian tradition” that considers taste and touch as “irrational” animalistic senses that lead to gluttony and lust, we can see how some scholars interpreted the allegory of taste and touch in those paintings to be serving a moral objective[59]. Scholars argued that painters intentionally did not depict the allegory fully. Instead, they only depicted half of it, “the temptation to sensual indulgence”, in order to give their audience the opportunity to experience being tempted and be aware of the consequences of that temptation[60]. According to those scholars, this interaction and participation of the audience with the painting was a big part of accomplishing the moral objective of the painting that is manifested in their own temptation[61]. As Bauer puts it, “it is the viewer’s reason that is being challenged to cast aside”[62]. In other words, depiction of “excessive pursuit of pleasure” was interpreted as a means to communicate the notion of “moral corruption” of both the figure depicted and the viewer who actively interacts with the painting[63]. Scholars who embraced this view wanted to find meaning in those paintings to be able to understand the “moralizing concerns of a particularly articulate segment of Dutch society”[64]. They did that interpret those paintings by employing symbolic meanings from other works of art and literature in that time.
In order to discern if Ter Brugghen’s Bagpipers belongs to this category and/ or this interpretation, we should consider the posture of his Bagpiper and compare it with the posture of the figures in the paintings at stake. The figure in Ter Brugghen’s Allegory of Excess is directly facing the viewer and inviting him to taste the grapes as well as the figure in Jan van Bylert’s The Five Senses. This seductive intention can be applied to Caravaggio’s Bacchus since he offers the viewer a glass full of wine with directly looking at him[65]. In contrast, Ter Brugghen’s Bagpiper is giving the viewer his back because he is immersed in his own world. The self-immersed musician can be seen in other paintings by Ter Brugghen ( Figure.2) .The position of the figure changes the whole context of the painting since it changes the perspective of the viewer from an observer in Ter Brugghen’s Bagpipe Player , to a participant in Caravaggio’s Bacchus.
Some scholars took it too far in their interpretation of paintings that represent senses. They interpreted the lack of masculinity in some of Caravaggio’s paintings, e.g. Boy Peeling a Fruit, which is found in an English private collection according to Niclson, from a moral perspective[66]. Interestingly, they associated the “slackness or softening of traditionally masculine traits” with “incontinence”, not with homosexual tendencies or orientation[67]. However, Bauer sheds light on the root of this association in Aristotle’s philosophy ,which asserts that one who can’t resist the temptation of earthly pleasures should be described as feminine: “ If one gives way where people generally resist and are capable of resisting, he deserves to be called effeminate”[68]. Nevertheless, looking at the root of this notion in poetry, we find a portrayal of a figure that resembles those figures, “the Genius whom Spenser uses as Pleasure’s porter at the entrance to the Bower of Bliss”[69]. He is described in book two canto 12, stanzas 46 and 49:
His looser garment to the ground did fall.
And flew about his heels in wanton wize,
Not fit for speedy pace, or manly exercize.[70]
The portrayal of Spenser’s Genius recalls the loose garment of Ter Brugghen’s Bagpiper and his pipe’s drones resting on his naked shoulder. Despite the sensuality of the bagpiper, his thick masculine beard and moustache do negate the allegory of effeminacy suggested by Spenser and Aristotle. Moreover, the seriousness of the Bagpiper’s eye expression suggests that he is truly playing the instrument. In addition, the fact that his fingers are on the pipe’s holes and that his lips are tightly blowing it to control the airwave makes it impossible to think that he is pretending to play. In contrast, we see other musicians in other paintings where they hold wine glasses and/ or flirting with some women with total ignorance to the musical instruments they have in those paintings [71].All of these components contribute to the probability of the suggestion that Ter Brugghen’s Bagpiper does not fit in the category of figures associated with effeminacy because of their moral corruption.
Some scholars such as Svetlana Alpers rejects the moral interpretation of Dutch genre paintings and offers an “epistemological” manner to incorporate in the interpretation of those paintings[72]. Alpers denies the existence of any “didactic and narrative functions” in those paintings. Salomon in Jacob Duck and the Gentrification of Dutch Genre Painting supports this view and questions the authenticity of the moralizing intentions and wonders if it was created by art historians of the second half of the seventeenth century[73]. This raises the problem of “historical evaluation” and what degree works of art reflect the society in which it was produced[74].
Despite the difficulty in proving the intention of Dutch painters in the seventeenth century, I should refer to the significance of what Giovanni Bellori wrote in 1664, “Common people refer everything they see to everyday visual experience. They praise things painted naturally, being used to such things...”[75] This statement indicates the desire of the seventeenth century Dutch audience to integrate all forms of art. Thus, we see the incorporation of music with pastoral poetry and drama in addition to the allegorical connection between visual representation of musical instruments and their social function.
Attempting to reconcile the various depictions of bagpipes and bagpipers by only looking at different visual representations of it, it’s almost impossible to draw a reliable conclusion related to its symbolic significance. However, looking at different cultural manifestations and artistic trends related to Ter Brugghen’s Bagpipe Player, it’s hard to ignore the interrelation between the motif of the bagpipe and its reflections in literature and poetry. In a time where Dutch painters tried to build a “world of knowledge through vision”, it’s hard not to incorporate other artistic trends and literary tradition when interpreting a painting depicting a musician[76]. Therefore, I conclude that Hendrick Ter Brugghen’s Bagpipe Player alludes to pastoral poetry which suggests the healing function of bagpipers.
Illustrations
Figure1 Hendrick Ter Brugghen, Bagpipe Player In Profile, 1624, Washington
Dc, National Gallery Of Art.
Source: National Gallery of Art,” http://www.nga.gov/press/2009/ter_brugghen.shtm.
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[1] Linda Bauer, “Moral Choice in Some Paintings by Caravaggio and His Followers,” The Art Bulletin LXXIII no.3 (September 1991), http://www.jstor.org/stable/3045812.
[2] Look at Bosch’s paintings: The Haywain, The Garden of Delights, The Temptation of Saint Anthony and The Marriage at Cana.( to be edited)
[3] Sandra Sider, Handbook to Life in Renaissance Europe (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2005), 160.
[4] Ian F. Finlay, “ Musical Instruments in 17th-Century Dutch Paintings,” The Galpin Society Journal 6 ( July, 1953), http://www.jstor.org/stable/841717
[5]
[6] Hendrick Ter Brugghen, Bagpipe Player In Profile, 1624, Washington Dc, National Gallery Of Art.
[7] Sider, Life in Renaissance, 160.
[8] Ian F. Finlay, “ Musical Instruments in 17th-Century Dutch Paintings,” The Galpin Society Journal 6 ( July, 1953), http://www.jstor.org/stable/841717
[9] Finaly, “Musical Instruments in 17th-Century.”
[10] Sider, Life in Renaissance, 160.
[11] Leonard J. Slatkes, and Wayne Franits, Paintings of Hendrick ter Brugghen 1588-1629 Catalogue Raisonne (Philadelphia: John Benjamins North America, 2007), 35.
[12] Richard Judson, Gerrit van Honthorst: A Discussion of His Position in Dutch Art (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1959), 2.
[13] Finlay, “Musical Instruments in 17th-Century.”
[14] Ibid, 52.
[15] Ibid, 52.
[16] Sider, Life in Renaissance, 130.
[17] Look at David Stephens’ “History at the Margins. Bagpipers in Medieval Manuscripts” History Today 39 (July 1989): 42-48.
[18] Paul Barolsky , “As in Ovid, So in Renaissance Art,” Renaissance Quarterly 51 no.2 (Summer 1998), http://www.jstor.org/stable/2901573
[19] Barolsky, “As in Ovid.”
[20] Ibid, 464.
[21] Sider, Life in Renaissance, 160.
[22] Lowinsky, Edward, “Music in the Culture of the Renaissance,” Journal of the History of Ideas 15 (October 1954), http://www.jstor.org/stable/2707674.
[23] Ibid, 536-537.
[24] As quoted in Edward A. Block, “ Chaucer's Millers and Their Bagpipes,” Medieval Academy of America 29 no.2 ( April , 1954) , http://www.jstor.org/stable/2849332
[25] Ibid, 239.
[26] Ibid, 239.
[27] Block, “Chaucer’s Millers.”
[28] Ibid, 239.
[29] Ibid 239.
[30] David Stephens, “History at the Margins. Bagpipers in Medieval Manuscripts,” History Today 39 (July, 1989): 47.
[31] Ibid, 47.
[32] Ibid, 241.
[33] Ibid, 241.
[34] Stephens, “History at the Margins,”48.
[35] Ibid, 48.
[36] Ibid, 48.
[37] Ibid, 42.
[38] Ibid, 48.
[39] Ibid, 48.
[40] Ibid, 42.
[41] Steen, J., The Adoration of the Shepherds. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. As quoted in Ian F. Finlay, “ Musical Instruments in 17th-Century Dutch Paintings,” The Galpin Society Journal 6 ( July, 1953), http://www.jstor.org/stable/841717
[42] Block, “Chaucer’s Millers.”
[43] Ibid, 241.
[44] Block, “Chaucer’s Millers.”
[45] The Fantasy of Pieter Brueghel (New York, 1947), p. 18 and the plate on p.19. As quoted in Block, “Chaucer’s Millers.”
[46] The Examination of Sir William of Thorpe in English Garnered. Edward Arber ( New York,n.d.), VI, 140-141. As quoted in Block, “Chaucer’s Millers.”
[47] The Examination of Sir William of Thorpe in An English Garner, ed. Edward Arber (New York, n.d.), VI, 140-141. As quoted in Block, “Chaucer’s Millers.”
[48] Tasso, Jerusalem Delivered, trans.Anthony Esolen as quoted in Federico Schneider, “Pastoral Therapies for the Heartbroken in Guarini’s Pastor Fido and Monteverdi’s Book V,” Quaderni d’italianistica XXIX (June 2008): 73.
[49] Schneider,” Pastoral Therapies,” 74.
[50] Ibid, 73.
[51] Gerbino, Orpheus in Arcadia, 12-68. As quoted in Schneider,” Pastoral Therapies,” 74.
[52] Schneider,” Pastoral Therapies,” 98.
[53] Schneider,” Pastoral Therapies,” 98.
[54] Schneider,” Pastoral Therapies,” 74.
[55] Blankert and Slatkes (as in n.1), 204, cat.no.42; the other senses are represented by actions that embody them. Sight by holding a magnifying lens and mirror. Smell by sniffing s rose. Hearing by playing a lute, and Touch by feeling with his left hand a cut on his right wrist. As quoted in Bauer, “Moral Choice.”
[56] Bauer, “Moral Choice.”.
[57] Ibid, 392.
[58] (Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum). As quoted in Bauer, Moral Choice.”
[59] Nicomachean Ethics 7.7.1150b, but also 7.1.1145a. As quoted in Bauer, “Moral Choice.”
[60] Bauer, “Moral Choice.”
[61] Ibid, 396.
[62] Ibid, 367.
[63] Ibid, 397.
[64] Nanette Salomon, Jacob Duck and the Gentrification of Dutch Genre Painting. (Walter Liedtke. Beukenlaan: DAVACO Publishers, 1998), 21.
[65] Bauer, “Moral Choice.”
[66] B. Nicolson, The International Caravaggesque Movement, Oxford, 1979, 34. As quoted in Bauer, “Moral Choice.”
[67] Ibid, 397.
[68] Bauer, “Moral Choice.”
[69] Ibid, 397.
[70] Bk. 2, canto12, stanzas 46 and 49. As quoted in Bauer. , 397.
[71] Look at Hendrick Terbrugghena Laughing Bravo With A Bass Viol And A Glass, 1625, London, UK, Royal Collection, Windsor Castle.
[72] Salomon, Jacob Duck, 21.
[73] Ibid, 22.
[74] Ibid, 23.
[75] Bellori quoted from BARASCH 1985, P.317. As quoted in Salomon, Jacob Duck, 24.
[76] Salomon, Jacob Duck, 21.
